Origin of the Great Silk Road

Origin of the Great Silk Road concerns to the II century BC. And the term "the Great Silk Road" has been entered into a historical science by the scientists of the XIX century. In 1877 the German traveller and historian K.Rihtgofen has written the work "China" in which it for the first time has defined this trading way on east countries the name "Silk Road".

It is necessary to notice, that else long before formation of the Great Silk Road in territory of the Central Asia and the Ancient East there were ways which served the purposes of war and peace. There are great armies and small groups moved ahead, the bloody fights inflamed, located along them cities were exposed to attacks; during peace time these ways served as copulative strings of a political, trading and cultural life. Exactly this function was appreciated always with people.

One of the most ancient ways - " lazurite " - has developed in 3-2 millenia BC. It began in mountains of Pamir, passed through Iran up to Forward Asia and Egypt. The semiprecious stone lazurite (lapis lazuli), extracted in area of the top Amu Darya on Pamir (in Badakhshan), was highly appreciated by jewellers of the ancient eastern аstates, such as Sumer and Egypt. At excavation of tombs in them have been found outа products from badakhshanian lazurite.

Other way - well-known "imperial road" of Akhemenids - connected in VI-IV centuries BC the cities of Asia Minor Efes and Sardi on coast of Mediterranean sea from one of capitals of Iran and the city of Susa. One more way conducted from Iran through Bactria, Sogdiana, Tashkent oasis and territory of Kazakhstan up to Altai.

In the IV century BC Alexander the Great has crushed army of the last Akheminid tsar Darija and in аspring of 329 BC has appeared on border of Central Asia. Despite of strong resistance, Alexander the Great establishes here the domination. He has based the big number of Alexandrias, farthest of which was on the coast of Syr-Darya where nowadays there is Khodjent city.

Huge historical value of campaigns of Alexander the Great and Selevkids consists mainly in active penetration into Central Asia western culture. If political submission by the Greek conquerors Margiana, Bactria, Sogd has appeared short-lived, process ofа hellenisation, in other words merging of the Greek and Central Asian cultures, promoted intensive rise of spiritual and material culture.

During this period were kept communications between Central Asia and cultures of India and east Mediterranean. Approximately in the III century BC began to form contacts with China.

It is known, that the Chinese emperor Vu Dee in 138 BC has sent ambassador by the name Chzhan Tsjan for searching of allies in struggle against aggressive nomadic tribes of Gunns which devastated northern surburbs of China. Traveling, the ambassador was taken prisoner to Gunns for the whole ten years. He managed to run and through high passes of Central Tien Shan to leave to Issyk Kul. Having passed along coast of the river Naryn, he gets to Fergana valley. For him it was unexpectedness, аthat in a valley the set of the cities incorporated in one state settled down. He tried to agree with the governor of the Fergana valley, but he agreed only on an establishment of trade relations, and Chzhan Tsjan has gone further on the south. Coming back from travel, it again was taken prisoner to Gunns, but this time ran later two years. Chzhan Tsjan has presented emperor the detailed report on the stay in Central Asia, has specified convenient ways for trade which subsequently became a basis of the Great Silk Road. Emperor gave him a title "the Great traveller".

Data on an exchange between China and Central Asia are contained, basically, in the Chinese chronicles since the 1 century BC till the VII-VIII centuries AD. Early evidences narrate about donative presents which went from the countries of the Middle Asian region to an imperial palace. From here also were sent gifts if China wished to win round someone from local possessors. From Central Asian gifts were especially appreciated well-known horses of Davan, swift-footed racers whom Chineses named "heavenly", "winged". And they were appreciated because in China there was a legend: to approve the divinity and to reach immortality emperor should rise on the sky by means of gear unearthly horses. Chzhan Tsjan has delivered to China "heavenly" horses. This enterprising traveller has taken out from Central Asia not only horses, but also forage for them - seeds of Lucerne. Soon crops of Lucerne have extended across all China.

Gradually trade relations between Central Asia and China become stronger. Every year the imperial court yard sent at least five missions on the West accompanied by several hundreds of warders. They carried silk and metal products that exchanged on horses, a greenstone, a coral and other goods from Central Asia.

Chinese products intended not only for Central Asia. The significant need in unique silk fabrics was in Persia and in the states to the West from it.

In Europe considered, that silk grows on trees and that only Chineses know a secret of this culture. During the board of August, Rome paid for the Chinese silk in the woolen goods, spices and glass products.

At Chineses was not the slightest intention to deny a legend of a similar sort, than they have provided to themselves monopoly and export of this expensive fabric. Parthian through which territory trade was carried out, in the same way did not see an occasion to distribute something about technical aspects of manufacturing of silk, however received from trade in it significant profit, as well as many subsequent dynasties through which grounds passed silk ways.

The first meeting of Romans with this fabric has not crowned special glory. Mark Mitsiny Krase, a member of the triumvirate, the consul and the Roman deputy in Syria, dreamed to pass in the steps of Alexander the Great and to repeat its victories over the East. In 53 BC he has led seven legions through Euphrates in fight against Parthian. However not the message about a victory or confusion in occasion of defeat have made furor in Rome, and absolutely casual event, namely - opening of silk. It has been connected with defeat of legions.

Parthian during the battle have just for show taken to flight in order to turn round immediately in a saddle and to shower pursuing legionaries with a rain from arrows it was well-known Parthian shot. Except for that, they have unexpectedly unfurled huge, shone and poured on the sun banners, having frightened the soldiers so, that they have surrendered. It became one of the heaviest defeats of Rome. And banners embroidered in gold became the first silks which were seen ever by Romans.

Seen once, this fabric in the subsequent centuries put Rome in to real "silk fever". This cool fabric, "light as a cloud " and "gauzy as an ice ", Romans have named - "The Chinese veil ".

The caravans left China, went to northern mountains of Tien Shan, crossed territory of Central Asia, and then through Khurasan (to the west of Amu Darya) got to Mesopotamia and to the Mediterranean.

Extent of the Great Silk Road made 12 thousand kilometers, therefore it were not many from merchants passed all silk road completely. Basically they tried to travel in shifts and to exchange the goods somewhere on halfway.

During the Great Silk Road in the cities and settlements through which passed caravans, were a caravan-sarai (coaching inns). In them were available Khudjras (" rooms of rest") for merchants and the personnel serving a caravan, a premise for camels, horses, mules and donkeys, necessary fodder and provisions.
Caravan-sarai was a place where it was possible to sell and buy by the gross the goods interesting to a merchant, and main thing - learn last commercial news and, first of all, the prices for the goods.

Khoresm, Sogdiana and Ferghana became succeeding shopping centers. The Silk Road stimulated need for the Central Asian goods, such as horses and forage crops, and also grapes and cotton. In cities handicraftsmen have mastered new kinds of craft: manufacture of the metal products, adopted at the East, and products from glass - at the West.

Historical directions ofа the Great Silk Road

Being the conditional name, Great Silk Road represented a network of roads on which in an antiquity and the Middle Ages were carried out trade and economic relations of the countries of the East and the West, it was then between world civilizations -а by empiresа Roman (Byzantian) and Hansk (Chinese).

Having captured all Euroasian continent, including present territory of Russia, Transcaucasia and the Central Asia, widely branched out network of the Great Silk Road spread on all the world religions, writings and culture. This way, operated one and a half thousand years, has played a huge role in rapproachement of two continents, in mutual cultural enrichment of many European and Asian people.

On the verge of an ancient and new era trading caravans from China began the way from Chajan and went to Dukhua city Цon border at the Great Wall. From here the route missed on two ways: northern and southern.

УNorthern roadФ passed along southern slopes of Tien Shan and the river Tarim through Turfan and conducted to Kashgar, Alay, and therefrom - to Fergana valley (Davan), the Central Asian country between two rivers (Samarkand, Merv), then turned to a lower reaches of Volga and Northern Black Sea Coast (on the Chinese sources-Lisyan). It terminated in local Greek colonies. This road, however, was not the settled trading route.

Such route became УSouthern roadФ which has started to function in 115 BC owing to opening of the state post path on southern and northern surburbs of desert Takla Makan. As narrate УDescriptions of the Western edgeФ ofа hanks dynasty chronicles, Уthe Southern roadФ conducted in Dazin (east provinces of Roman empire) through Pamir, Hotan, Yarkand, Balkh, Merv, Gekatompil аand Ecbatana (present Hamadan). Then it shared on two branches.

One of branches, at that time the trunk main, conducted to Selevkia-Ktesifon on the Tiger and further on ancient akhemenid road (imperial road ofа Dariy) to the country between two rivers (Mesopotamia) and Syria. Its terminal was then capital of Syria - Antiohia.

Other branch departed to Armenia, in those times capital Artashat. It ran through Gandzak-Shakhastan (Gazaka), then center of Antropaten (the Small Midia, present Iranian Azerbaijan). Further the road passed on east coast of lake Urmia and crossed the river Araka at Djuga (Djulfa). Then through Nakhichevan on a left bank of the river Araka it left in plain Araratskuja.

Extent of this first world transcontinental trading line exceeded 7000 km. Basic direction of Great Silk Road never varied, but local changes on plains occured often enough. The mountain roads were practically constant run on gorges, passes and high-mountainous tracks.

From ancient times Tien Shan and territory of modern Kyrgyzstan were crossed with three branches of the Great Silk Road:

The Pamir-Altayа way. From Mediterranean sea, crossing Iran, caravans came to the big city of Merv, here a way forked. One caravans went to Termez city, were crossed through Amu Darya, then on coast of its right inflow Kyzyl-Su rose on the Altay uplands. Here their way laid to convenient pass Irkeshtan and on a watercourse Kok-Su went to limits of East Turkestan.

The Ferghanaа way. Other caravans from Merv went through Bukhara and Samarkand to Khodjent and came to Ferghana valley. Further on the East the way conducted on foothills with extensive rich pastures. Caravans came into the cities of Osh and Uzgend. Then upwards on the river Jassy was coming the difficult way in Central Tien Shan to Atbashi city. From here one moved on the south to limits of East Turkestan, and others - on lake Issyk Kul to Barskhan.

The аway Chuyskiy . In the early Middle Ages it was the most brisk. Caravans from Samarkand went to Tashkent. Then along foothills of the Kirghiz ridge they came in in Chuyskaya valley. Here from the West on the East the chain of cities through which passed caravans lasted. Largest of them were Nevaket and Suyab. From Suyab through canyon Boom, merchants got on the lake Issyk Kul.

Along its southern coast, passing the cities Jar, Hod and Ton, caravans passed in Barskhan city (district of Kaisara). From Barskhan were two ways. One conducted on the north through pass the San Tash into the steppe of Mongolia and to kirgizian to Southern Siberia. Another through pass Dzhuuk in Central Tien Shan and through pass Bedel to East Turkestan. From East Turkestan all the ways conducted to China.

In the middle of the II century AD Klavdy Ptolomej has given the description of antique variant of the Great Silk Road. On it the road conducted through Mesopotamia, Assyria (Adiabena) and Midia to Ecbatana, therefrom turned to the gate of Kastiya (mountain pass to the east of Reya), then passed through Parphia to Gekatompil, Aria (Herat), Bactra (Balkh) and Margianian Antiokhia (Merv). The way described by Ptolomey, shared on three pieces: from a ferry through the river Euphrates up to Balkh, from Balkh up to the Stone tower and from it up to Sera (Chanjan). The establishment of contacts and communications between the countries was on all space from Rome up to China, has led to activization of then world trade.

In the III - first half the IV centuries position of the countries of Forward Asia on ways of world trade has undergone to essential changes. With occurrence of the Byzantian empire these routes began to be guided by Constantinople turned the largest trading and cultural center on a joint of the Europe and Asia. Then, alongside with the syrian site of "Southern roadФ, the new continental highway was generated which has gone through Ecbatana and Artashat to Constantinople.

Shortly necessity of the further reduction, straightening of a way to Constantinople has led to that the roads which are passing through Rey (near Teheran began to be used), and roads from country between two rivers (Nizibin) to Asia Minor (through Samosata). The road from Rey has gone in places where subsequently have arisen Kazvin, Zenjan, Mian and Tabriz.

In IV-VI centuries between Byzantium and Iran consist agreements on which the exchange of the goods and, mainly, the Chinese silk, between the Persian and Byzantian merchants was made in specially allocated places - Nizibin (the Tiger river), Kalinnikum (river Euphrates) and Artashat(river Arake), subsequently its functions send to Dvina.

Revival of world trade outlined inv the V - beginning of the VII centuries,has led to opening of new ways. The Chinese sources of that time describe three roads: "Northern", "Average" and "Southern". Last conducted to Northwest India. УNorthern roadФ, passing the rate of Turkic kagnate (near lake Issyk Kul), bent around Caspian sea and left to Black Sea Coast. As to УAverage roadУ it left through Zunlin (Pamir), passed through the countries Tsao, Khх, Greater and Small An, Samarkand, Bukhara, Merv, reached up to Bosi (Iran) and reached the Western sea.

ФAverage roadФ, departed from Dvina to Constantinople, conducted through Karin (Feodosiopol, Erserum), the Colony (Koyli, Gisar), from it to Nikiya (Eznik), Amasiya, Gangra and Angria (Ankura, Ankara). The road to a southern direction passed through Khlat, Khlimar, Urfa, Odessa) and Damascus to Jerusalem, and therefrom to Alexandria. Other road conducted to Basra through Nakhichevan, Gandzak-Shakhastan, Tizbon (Ktesifon), Akoliya (Kufa). From Gandzak-Shahastan the road departed on Ninenivia (Mosul), Mzbin (Nizibin and Urfa Odessa). On northeast the road passed through cities of East Transcaucasia with an output to Caspian sea. Northwest branch from Dvina conducted to Phase (Poti) and Dioskurii (Sukhumi).

Great Silk Road and the Empire of Kushan

In 1 century AD on the territory of Central Asia is formed the state of Kushan the first governor was Kudzula Kadfiz. The capital of the state, possibly, was city on place Dalverzintepa, in the Surkkhandarya valley. During the board of Kudzula Kadfiz the structure of the state of Kushan alongside with southern areas of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan included Afghanistan and Kashmir. During board of Kanishka (78-123 AD) the power of Kushan expands expansion on the East: strengthens the possession in India, the capital of the state has been translated from Bactria to Peshawar (in the north of India), and the state of Kushan has turned to the huge empire borrowed territory from India and Khotan up to the south of Uzbekistan and Afghanistan. New cities are under construction, crafts develop and trading communications are established with India, China and Roman empire. In trade were especially highly appreciated horses from Fergana.

In the period of Kushan wide scope is accepted with the international trade promoted strengthening of the Great Silk Road. The direction of trading communications was defined as follows: in the east - with China where from Central Asia carried woolen fabrics, carpets, ornaments, lazurite and thoroughbred horses, and from China silk fabrics, iron, nickel, furs, tea, paper, gunpowder were delivered; in the south - with India, whence took out spices and aromas. The way to India has been named by "trailing pass" because of narrow, hung on the big height, eaves in mountains; in the West - through Iran with Syria and Rome where the Chinese silk was appreciated worth its weight in gold; in the north - through Khoresm with the East Europe.

The main road passed through Dunhuan, Khami, Turfan, Kashgar, Uzgen, Osh, Kuva, Andizhan, Kokand, Samarkand, Bukhara and Merv. In Merv (modern city Mary in Turkmenistan) the Great Silk Road branched.
One branch conducted through Khoresm to Volga, to the East Europe. Thus the goods from China, India, Central Asia reached Russia: Kiev, Novgorod, and later Moscow. In Moscow in the market there was special as it named УIndianФ row, where traded basically east and Indian merchants.

Other branch went through Balkh and the grounds of modern Afghanistan to India. The third went to Bagdad and further to Mediterranean sea. Here the goods were overloaded on the ships and got to Egypt, Byzantium, Italy.

It is remarkable, that except for the basic roads of the Great Silk Road existed and adjoined to them caravan tracks. It is known, that there was a "gold" way. In opinion of A.Sagdullaev, V.Kostetskiy, N.Norkulova it has been named so because of fantastic riches of Kuramin and Altay mountains, and also the river Zarafshan and went in a direction to Pap and Zarkent, to settlements of miners and site of nomads. And in A.Askarov's opinion is there was a way to Siberia, passed through Davan (Ferghana) on coast of lake Issyk Kul on which carried gold. But it is quite probable, that both these ways functioned.

With caravans on the West and the East on the Great Silk Road went merchants, diplomats, selectors of an easy money and adventures, simple workers - handicraftsmen and farmers, and also pilgrims. Especially a lot of Buddhist monks wandered on caravan ways, attendants of a cult of the Buddha. Their movement was not aimless as a matter of fact they carried out distribution of religion. Gradually the Buddhism from India gets and into the countries located along the Great Silk Road. Time of active penetration of the Buddhism to Central Asia dates known Buddhist sanctuary Ayrtam (Northern Bactria, II century AD).

Especially strong center of the Buddhism has been found out by archeologists at excavation in Termez, in place Dalverzintepa. Here there is a whole complex of the temples, devoted to the Buddha. By excavation, it was powerful and rather long-term center of the Buddhism in the south of Central Asia, whence has begun the wide circulation of this religion on all territory of Central Asia which has become during empire of Kushan the state religion.

Then on caravan ways the Buddhism has gradually extended to China, further has moved to Japan, the South-east Asia and the countries of Indochina. Now we know how the Buddhism has deeply taken root in all these countries. Especially strongly it has taken roots in China and Japan. That is the most active and most direct role in distribution of the Buddhism belongs to the Great Silk Road.

The Buddhism was not the unique doctrine which has got to Central Asia and China from the West. Alongside with Zaroastrizm here took place Nestorian Christianity and Manichean.

The Nestorians ran to Central Asia and China from prosecutions which have begun when their interpretation of Christian plots have been declared by orthodox church in Syria heresy, in particular, they considered, that Jesus has been born by the man, and then became the Messiah (Christ).

Chineses named Christianity "the doctrine of light" and distinguished it from Zoroastrizm which they designated as "the doctrine of fire". In China Zoroastrizm has not received a wide circulation and remained mostly religion of strangers.
Manichean "the doctrine about two principles", made as opposed to it the big success. It combines elements of Zaroostrian and Christian religious representations. Characteristic also is the strict dualism, approved by two irreconcilable principles of Good and Evil.

Forbidden in Persia in the III century, Manichean has strongly located in Sogdiana, and since the VIII century has found numerous supporters in Central Asia among Uigurs. The period of its blossoming last down to the X century. Attitude of Chineses to Manicheanian mostly depended on their attitudes with Uigurs, and they, in turn, were vital for functioning trade on the Great Silk Road.

During after the X century Manichean in the western part of Central Asia has been finally superseded by an Islam, and in the east part by Buddhism.
But this way connected many countries, promoted not only to migration of religions, in parallel with it there was so active cultural interchange, including writings and music.

Central Asia always differed an originality of musical art. And its favourable geographical position during functioning the Great Silk Road promoted revival and in sphere of its musical life. Central Asia acted not only the intermediary, but also the active participant of process of musical mutual enrichment of the people.

The political conditions which has developed in region as a result of which Central Asia, East Turkestan and Northern India was included into the state association of empire of Kushan (I-IV centuries), the states of Eftalits(V-middle of VI centuries), Turkic kagneit (middle of VI-VII centuries), promoted an establishment of the closest contacts to east countries. During this period their ethnic and cultural generality amplifies, communications with China become stronger.

In E.Shefer's monography "Gold peaches of Samarkand" are cited data about various gifts to an imperial palace, and also about wide trade. They are the well-known Central Asian horses and dogs - obviously hunting, used wide demand in the court environment. The supply has been connected with the hunting entertainments to China hunting falcons, and also cheetahs.

From Khoresm brought furs of furry animals - sables, fiber, foxes, martens, beavers, hares, the dressed skins of goats, and from the Turkic countries - felt products and armour from horse leather. In China appreciated overseas wine and though by the VIII century its manufacturing already here has been mastered, from Chach (Tashkent oasis) was brought during this time the wine prepared "on the Iranian way".

From Tokharistan delivered a medicine "chitragandkha" - means from wounds and the bleedings, represented a mix of curative pitches and grasses. As medical products is mentioned "thorny honey" - by all known camel prickle which sweet juice possesses curative properties.

Value of the Great Silk Road was not settled by a trading exchange and subsidence along its highways products as ambassadorial gifts or subjects of the market. The Silk Road promoted to a huge measure relaying technological achievements. So, silkworm breeding and silk weaving which long time were monopoly of China, in the V-VI centuries, have promoted to Central Asia, Iran and Byzantium. And, on the contrary, the technics of manufacturing of the glass acted from the countries of the Mediterranean, has got into Iran and Central Asia, and in the V century have mastered it in China.

There is a version of purchase by the Western world of knowledge of manufacturing silk. It has occurred by means of that in the modern language it would be possible to name industrial espionage. The Chinese princess in 420 or 440 should marry governor Hotan and did not wish to refuse silk far from the native land. Therefore having hidden larvae of silkworm in the hairdress, it has carried by their contraband in Hotan. So has begun manufacturing silk outside China, though firstly and in small volume. From Central Asia to Byzantium larvae of silkworm, and together with them bases of manufacturing of silk, have got, hidden in a road staff of the nestorianian monk. Thus the monopoly of China for manufacture of silk has been destroyed.

Great Silk Road and Arabian Caliphate

In the VII century AD on Arabian Peninsula was formed the new state - Arabian caliphate, started to conduct a gain, owing to which in the VIII century AD it borrowed territory from coast of Atlantic up to Central Asia. Buddhist temples in Central Asia have been transformed into mosques. The Arabian language became state and a literary language. A duty of each moslem to make during a life Hadj (pilgrimage) in the sacred city of Mecca helped to develop foot and trading roads.

Being based in the beginning in Damascus, and then in Baghdad the new empire has achieved highly developed trade between India and China, on the one hand, and the Slavic countries, Byzantium and the Europe, with another. Political excitements did not break trading activity and cultural contacts within the limits of the Muslim world. Muslim dealers actively acted on caravan ways and have affirmed in shopping centers far outside their own empire, Muslim commercial communities could be found from Spain up to China, and trade between China and Mongolia has passed entirely in their hands.

The authority of Arabian caliphate in Central Asia has fallen in the end of the ninth century. Period of the IX-XII centuries in Central Asia in the political plan was the period of existence of the several centralized states - Samanids, Karakhanids, Gaznevids, Seldjukids and Khorezshkhs. And as to a level of cultural development period of the IX-XII centuries has received in the historical literature definition of "East Renaissance".

The relative calmness during this period promoted economic and cultural development of the region. To the East-western trade intensive trade has been added with areas of Volga through Khoresm.

Samarkand became significant city of Central Asia. The markets have been overflown by the goods from every corner of the world: Persia, India, China. Silk and cotton fabrics of the Zarafshan valley used huge demand. And masters of copper-smelting were famous for the lamps and boilers. From Samarkand also took out stirrups, bits, belts, scarfs, nuts. Especially the great value had manufacture of a paper which secret of manufacturing earlier was known only in China.

In opinion of English historian Hildy Hukhem, the secret of manufacturing of a paper has been opened by Chinese masters Ц papermaking masters which have been captured in fight at Talas (751) and then brought to Samarkand.

Samarkandian papermaking masters have mastered art of manufacture of a writing paper and in the further transferred the skill from generation to generation. Similar transfer of know-how of a paper was one of its reasons highly ratings during many centuries. By the end of аthe X century the Samarkand paper has replaced the papyrus and parchment in east countries, and even when its manufacture has extended on the West, the Samarkand paper had not equal.

Bukhara was famous for products of goldsmiths. A significant place in its export borrowed also carpets, cotton and woolen fabrics, tanned leather, horse saddles, oil, hemp, sulfur, walnuts and, certainly, the well-known Bukhara water-melons and melons.
Area of Shash or Chach was famous during this time for manufacture of leather and leather products that was caused first of all by the neighborhood with nomadic steppe. From Shash were taken out high saddles from a horse leather, quivers for arrows, tents; except for that: raincoats, playful rugs, onions, needles and scissors.

Trading activity of the X-XII centuries was especially favorable for Khoresm. This oasis in the bottom current of Amu Darya, to the south of Aral sea, mediated in steppe trade between Volga and nomads. From the main city of Khoresm Urgench, caravans could follow up to Otrar and then to China, or the main road could incorporate in Bukhara and guide to the south. From here the road went on the east, to China or to the south through Hindu Kush to India. It is known, that Khoresm "specialized" on confectionery products from almonds and magnificent melons which were exported packed in lead forms with a snow or an ice.

Except for that were especially appreciated the Khorezm bows, to bend it could only strong people; and also: boats, the fish glue, the fish teeth: let alone a plenty of a fish which was caught in a lower reaches of Amu Darya and it was taken out in a salty kind.

Merchants, certainly, could not conduct caravan trade in the individual order as charges on sending even the smallest caravan were significant. As well as during previous times, merchants have been incorporated in the certain trading companies which were set as the purpose conducting of trading operations by caravan ways.

In trading operations in the X century were often used checks ("check" - the Persian word designated in this case - "document"). It was possible to not carry with itself greater sums of money, and to give them in any city to one of worthy commercial trust sarraf (money-changer; shroff), to take from it the corresponding document - the check and, after its presentation in other city, to receive completely handed over sum.

Great Silk Road and Genghis Khan

It is necessary to tell, that during the periods of political conflicts of a line of the Great Silk Road had one more function, extremely adverse.

The very Great Silk Road used in the purposes in the XIII century Genghis Khan, submitting people over people. But the gain is one of ways, though also adverse, establishments of contacts between people. Submitting the countries, subordinating people, conquerors could not subdue a life. The life all equally proceeded. Continued to exist and the Great Silk Road though itТs trading functions have been limited, and it has a little changed the direction.

When Genghis Khan has subdued Central Asia, Khoresm was divided on two parts; northern with capital in Urgench, which has been included in ulus of Djuchi (possession of senior son of Genghis Khan) and subsequently become by a part of Golden Horde (territory from Siberia up to the East Europe which governor was the grandson of Genghis Khan - Berke); and southern - with capital in Kyat, become part of the Chagatay Ulus (possession of the second son of Genghis Khan - Chagatay, territory of Central Asia).

The Mongolian domination stimulated caravan trade between China and the countries of the Mediterranean. But benefit from this trade got not to Central Asia, because of its internal disorders, and Golden Horde. Many of caravans bypassed party Maverannahr passing directly to Volga to the north of Caspian Sea, and therefrom went to Black sea. Khoresm was a southern piece on this northern way, it continued to play a role of a link in a regional and intercontinental trading exchange. Large shopping center was Urgench which markets have been overflown.

Great Silk Road and Amir Temur

Especially patronized to an international trade Amir Temur who has become the governor of Maverannahr in 1370. He supported for preservation of the Great Silk Road and restoration of its lines through the territory of Maverannahr.

With connection of Khoresm trade which a stream went through the markets of Urgench, now again has been directed through Samarkand - capital of empire of Amir Temur.

In the end of the 70th years Temur directs the look to Khurasan. Through it there was a main way from Maverannahr and China to which in Balkh incorporated the road from India. Along these roads there were rich markets, especially in Herat where it was possible to find the goods of the Mediterranean and Khurasan: silk and cotton fabrics, brocade and scarfs, felt and carpets; magnificent turquoise from Nishapur, aromatic substances: pomegranates, grapes, pistachioes and almonds; and also the steel made in Herat, Khurasanian gold and silver. Rubies and lapis lazuli from Maverannahr. In these markets it was possible to buy horses, mules, sheeps and camels.

In the 80th years of the XIV century Khurasan and Herat were a part of Amir Temur's Empire. And from 1389 up to 1395 Temur has made three campaigns against khan of Golden Horde Tokhtamish and in the result has been destroyed the capital of Golden Horde - Saray Berke (city in a lower reaches of Volga river), and the caravan аways which are passed through its territory, have ceased to function. After falling the Saray Berke northern intercontinental road has been practically thrown. Instead of road through Saray, Urgench and Otrar caravans again have taken a way through Herat, Balkh and Samarkand.

All Amir Temura's subsequent campaigns to Iran, Caucasus, India and Turkey have been directed on restoration of trading highways of the Great Silk Road which operated beforeа Mongolian time (in other words before Genghis Khan).
In time of the board ofа Amir Temur trade relations with China became stronger. Caravan trade between Central Asia and China has received new stimulus. According to, containing in Chinese source: "Min Shilu" ("The notes about events within board of the Minsk emperors "), in the period between 1368-1398 the embassies from Amir Temur arrived to China nine times. As gifts to China have been sent horses, camels, velvet, swords and armour. From its part the Chinese emperor has sent gifts from jewels. Also it is known, that in 1394 Amir Temur sends to emperor of China the letter with kind wishes accompanied by "gift" as 200 horses.

In 1404-1405 when Temur has undertaken a campaign to China, situation has a little become aggravated. However already at his successors Shakhrukh and Ulugbek restoration and active development of diplomatic relations was outlined. Governors in the messages to each other emphasized necessity of strengthening of friendly attitudes, developments of mutually advantageous trade and a safety of trading ways. For the period 1403-1449 to China arrived 33 embassies from Samarkand and 14 from Herat.

Ambassadors of the various states arrived to China were released from payment of duties, besides it free of charge gave them a lodging for the night, rendered necessary services and were arranged various amusements during all the time of their stay in China.

Even then, when as a result of opening sea ways the basic part of the goods from China and India began to be delivered on the sea, participation of the Central Asian merchants in trade between the Far East and the countries of Forward Asia proceeded, though in much smaller volumes. To Central Asia and during late feudalism continued to act the Chinese silk clothes, silk fabric and porcelain products.

According to R.G.Mukminova, one of the subjects of export from Central Asia on the Great Silk Road to this period was the fabric ZANDANACHI - production of the workshop which is settled down in settlement Zandana near to Bukhara. Received the name in a place of development, it was delivered through Bukhara in a number of the countries, including to Caucasus and to Russia.

From the XVI century trading-diplomatic communications of Central Asia and China have started to weaken noticeably. The reasons for that was opening sea ways, strengthening of interfeudal wars, an aggravation of political attitudes between the states of Shejbanids in Central Asia and Sefevids in Iran, civil strifes in Mongolia. Isolation of Central Asian cities from shopping centers of other countries had a consequence significant decline of caravan trade.

In the XIX century when the attention of the Europe has been turned аto Turkestan, the Great Silk Road already for a long time became a legend. It "repeated opening" was casual result of political circumstances. This time with аthe secret mission under orders of queen of England through snow-covered passes of Karakorum to Central Asia have been sent Indian Mukhammadi Khamid. He should reconnoiter oases in Takla Makan. It was the period of collision of interests of colonial powers - Russia and England which competed in strengthening the possession and expansion of sphere of influence in Asia, and the first problem was exploring of area and cartography.

Englishmen had an interesting idea: to use Indians which under a kind of merchants could cross without special difficulty borders on a way to Turkestan. So Mukhammadi Khamid has received the mission and has gone to Yarkand. He could not finish the mission as was ill and has died. However it managed to make some records in which contained data on a route through Takla Makan, considered as a legend, and about thrown, filled up by sandy dunes, cities in desert, near to Khotan.
Should pass three more decades before the close attention has been given more to these data. From 1900 begin archeologic researches on the Silk Road (on "the Southern Silk Road", in Khotan). English, German, French, Russian and Japanese scientists participated in them. Itа have been found numerous masterpieces of art, the manuscripts in not less than seventeen languages and twenty four fonts, stored now in the most known museums of the world. The beginning of the first world war suddenly has torn off these researches.
The end of the XX century is characterized with unique geopolitic importance and by scales of changes in the world. All world becomes complete and interdependent system.

The XXI century, obviously, will be a century of globalization in the international attitudes. In these conditions process of integration of the states of the Central Asia, expansion of participation in the international programs is necessary for considering not only as historical inevitability, but also as the powerful factor of stability, stability both separate regions, and all planet.

One of indispensable conditions of development of a society is active information interchange between people and civilizations. Achievements of culture extendedа owing to contacts between people - through trade, gain, resettlement.

Special role in this process played caravan roads, in particular Great Silk Road which connected China, India, Central Asia in an antiquity and the early Middle Ages, Average and Near East, the Mediterranean.

The УSilk RoadФ program

Considering unique in the history ofа civilization the role of the Great Silk Road, the international organizationа UNESCO has accepted in 1987 the "Silk Road" program.

The basic idea of the program - to show, how alongside with wars during many centuries proceeded processes of dialogue between the countries and people, and as primary factors of this process served trade relations and the cultural interchange, carried out on lines of the Great Silk Road. For its execution have undertaken the international groups made of the most different experts. The major place in realization of the program is allocated to the republics of Central Asia in which monuments of culture were weaved together both local, and overseas traditions.

In central points of the Great Silk Road it is lead one and a half ten scientific seminars. The response of scientists of Uzbekistan to the program of UNESCO became the collection "On the Central Asian lines of the Great Silk Road. Sketches of history and culture", published in 1990.

Final conference of the program "Great Silk Road" has passed in Paris in 1997. The unique exhibition took place there, which has shown cultural achievements of Asian people of different centuries.

And two years earlier, in 1995, in Stuttgart Linden-Museum, then in Berlin and Rotterdam had been organized an exhibition "Successors of the Silk Road -Uzbekistan", promoted to more close acquaintance with history and traditions of Uzbekistan.

In November, 1998 in Tashkent, took place final 155th sessions of an executive advice of UNESCO. On it the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan I.A.Karimov made a speech, who has expressed sincere gratitude to a management of UNESCO for assistance and support in restoration of historical memory and, in particular, has noted, that "Еresult of the program of UNESCO "the Silk Road Ц a road of dialogue" was creation in Samarkand the International institute of the Central Asian researches which is called to bring the contribution to studying history of a civilization of the Central Asia... " (Narodnoe Slovo (National word) - November 7, 1998).

The Great Silk Road undoubtedly had the important economic and political value in a life of people of Asia and the Europe. It served as the original bridge between the East and the West owing to which there was an interaction and cooperation of people both on trading, and in a cultural field. It testifies still and that the finest way of contacts and dialogue of people is the way of trade, culture and a science. And for this reason presently, on a threshold of the XXI century process of restoration of traditions of the Great Silk Road became actual.

It is necessary to emphasize especially, that our republic undertakes practical steps in realization of this process. Uzbekistan takes part in realization of the program of the United Nations " Expansion of trade by means of development of cooperation in transit transportations " within the limits of which joint steps of the countries of the Central Asia in the field of creation of transit transport corridors which will provide with it an output to seaports are developed and will promote revival of the Great Silk Road.

In May, 1993 in Brussels by European commission had been organized a meeting of representatives of the states of the Central Asia and Caucasus, and also the European Union. The purpose of a meeting was consideration of an opportunity of integration into world economic of the new independent states - the countries of the Central Asia and Caucasus. This question first of all has been connected with development of transport and communication systems. At аBrussels meeting has been considered the question of creation of TRASEKA - transport corridor аEurope - Caucasus Ц Asia. This meeting was the first practical step in revival of the Great Silk Road. On it has been concluded the intergovernmental contract of the republics of аCentral Asia, other countries of the Organization of economic cooperation (OEC), according to which construction of a railroad line Tedzhen-Serakhs-Meshkhed is carried out, by аbeing a component of the Trans-Asiatic highway connecting Peking with Istanbul. The important step on a way of its realization became joining in 1996 in place Serakhs of trunk-railways of Central Asia and Iran.

End of construction is planned by 2000. Opening of this transport corridor will promote additional increase in the foreign trade attitudes of Uzbekistan as on the East - in the countries of Asian-Pacific region, and on the West to Turkey and further - to the Europe.

On September, 8th, 1998 the President of our Republic Islam Karimov has taken part in the international conference, devoted to revival of the Great Silk Road which took place in capital of Azerbaijan. Representatives of 32 countries of the world, and also representatives of the United Nations, the European Bank of Reconstruction and Development, the World Bank have taken part in conference. At the Baku conference its participants have approved the offer on creation of the Commission on realization of project TRASEKA, establishment of constant secretary with the main residence in Baku.

Along with construction of railways Uzbekistan participates in construction and reconstruction of highways Andizhan-Osh-Irkashtan-Kashgar, giving an output to China and Pakistan, and also Bukhara - Serakhs - Meshed - Teheran and Termez - Herat - Kandahar - Karachi, allowing to leave to Indian ocean.

Functioning of these transcontinental highways which practically coincide with a direction of the Great Silk Road, will provide favorable opportunities for realization of foreign economic relations of Uzbekistan and the countries of the Central Asia, expansion of transit transportations from the countries of Asian-Pacific region, India and China in the countries of Near Asia, Turkey, and also to the Europe, and an establishment of regular cultural and tourist attitudes with many countries of the world.